PART V: HISTORY OF BUDDHIST LITERATURE AND MYANAMAR
Topic 33: Theravāda Buddhism
(391 words)
Theravāda etymologically is consisted of two words: “Thera” and “Vāda.” The former means “elderly monks” and the latter means “words or speech.” So Theravāda literally means the teachings of the Elders. However, it also can be translated as the “School of the Elders” because it is preserved by Elderly Monks after the Buddha’s demise. It is also called Southern Buddhist School because of its direction of propagation. Nowadays Buddhist scholars believe that Theravāda Buddhism almost keep intact the original and pure teachings of the Buddha.
Regarding its crucial doctrine, it does not accept the theory of permanent personality of the so-called “being” (atta). Almost theistic religions believe that there is a Universal soul called Brahma or eternal self living forever within an entity. However, there is no being called “I, he, she, etc” from Buddhist point of view. A being is just a combination of mentality (nāma) and materiality (rūpa) or five aggregates (pañca-khandha), i.e. corporeality (rūpa), sensations (vedanā), perception (saññā), mental formations (saṅkhāra) and consciousness (viññāṇa). Nothing permanent is there in a being, apart from this incessant arising and dissolution of corporeal and mental phenomena.
Almost Buddhists believe that human beings are governed by the law of kamma. Every action produces its corresponding effects. It is, therefore, accepted by Buddhists that one is the master of his own destiny, one is the captain of his life, one can mould his own life, and one is the child of his past and parents of his future. The saying “life is what we make” is the motto of Buddhism.
The Buddha taught that all living beings are suffering due to their craving, hatred, and delusion. At the same time, he also expressed the state of Nibbāna and the way how to end of suffering. This way is the Noble Eightfold Path consisting of the three Sikkhās, namely:
Sīla (Morality): right speech, right action and right livelihood.
Samādhi (Mental culture): right efforts, right mindfulness and right concentration.
Paññā (Wisdom): Right view and right thought.
The Buddhist literature is preserved in the Tipiṭaka, namely, the Vinaya Piṭaka (The Basket of Discipline), the Suttanta Piṭaka (The Basket of Discourses) and the Abhidhamma Piṭaka (The Basket of Higher Teachings). All the teachings of the Buddha can be summed up in the following verse:
“To refrain from all evils
To do what is good
To purify the mind
This is the teaching of all Buddhas.”
Topic 34: What is Buddhism?
Write an essay on Buddhism and its adherents.
Write an essay on “Theravāda Buddhism”
(386 words)
Buddhism was founded by the Gotama Buddha in India some 2500 years ago. The people who believe in Buddhism are called Buddhists. Other religions such as Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, etc. base their teachings on the idea of God. However, in Buddhism, there is no Almighty God or the Creator who can guide one’s own fate or destiny or make judgements on one’s behaviours. According to the teaching of the Buddha, one should rely on oneself for one’s salvation. One need not pray to any god for his deliverance or success.
Buddhists believe in Kamma, which means all kinds of intentional actions whether mental, verbal or physical. Every action produces its corresponding effect. It is, therefore, accepted by Buddhists that one is the master of one’s own destiny or fate, one is the captain of one’s life, and one can mould one’s own life. The saying “Life is what we make” is the motto of Buddhism.
Buddhism is neither pessimistic nor optimistic but realistic. It is the natural principles of man and universe discovered by the Buddha through his omniscience. As the Buddha is the seeker of the truth. Buddhism is concerned with truth and facts. Buddhists may be able to live in harmony with other people and in consistence with the law of righteousness. It should be learnt and put into practice by every Buddhists.
Buddhism teaches that with the practice of meditation and mind cultivation one can acquire the five supernormal powers. Not only this, but Buddhism also teaches that with the attainment of Nibbāna in this life itself. Through enlightenment and wisdom, one can reach the end of this chain of rebirth.
Buddhism never demands blind faith from its adherents for it is founded on reason. So it is a scientific explanation of the natural laws of life and not set of dogmas laid down authoritatively. Therefore, the Buddha said thus: “Ehi passiko” meaning: “come and see for yourself”. That is “You are invited to study and analyse Buddhism through your rationality”. Only when you find it acceptable, you can accept it or you can discard it. The Buddha, therefore, said in Kalama sutta: “Don’t believe in mere hearsay, tradition, rumours, the written testimony of some ancient sages, old customs, and whatever the teacher says, only through your investigation, you can accept it as truth”.
Topic 35: Differences between Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism
(415 words)
I have studied Mahāyāna and Theravāda Buddhism for many years and the more I study it, the more I find there is hardly any difference between Theravāda and Mahāyāna with regard to the fundamental teachings.
- Both accept Sākyamurni Buddha as the Teacher.
- The four Noble Truths are exactly the same in both schools.
- The Eightfold Noble Path is exactly the same in both schools.
- The Paticca-samuppada or the Dependent Origination is the same in both schools.
- Both rejected the idea of a supreme being who created and governed the world.
- Both accept Anicca, Dukkha, Anatta and Sīla, Samādhi, Paññā without any difference.
These are the most important teachings of the Buddha and they all are accepted by both schools without a question.
There are also some different points. An obvious one is the Bodhisattva ideal. Many people say that Mahāyāna is for the Bodhisattahood which leads to Buddhahood while Theravāda is for Arahantship. It is clear that the Buddha was also an Arahant. Pacceka Buddha is also an Arahant. A disciple can also be an Arahant. The Mahāyāna texts never use the term Arahant-yāna means Arahant vehicle. They used three terms: Bodhisattvayāna, Prateka-Buddhayāna, and Sravakayāna. In the Theravāda tradition, these there are called Bodhis.
Theravāda Buddhists follow orthodox religious traditions that had prevailed in India two thousand five hundred years ago. They perform their religious services in Pāḷi language. They also expect to attain the final goal (Nibbāna) by becoming a Supreme Enlightened Buddha, Pacceka Buddha or an Arahant (the highest stage of sainthood). The majority of them prefer the Arahanthood. Buddhists in Sri Lanka, Burma, and Thailand belong to this school. Mahāyānists have changed the old religious customs. Their practices are in accordance with the customs and traditions of the countries where they live. Mahāyānists perform their religious services in their mother tongue. They expect to attain the final goal (Nibbāna) by becoming Buddhas. Hence, the honour both the Buddha and Bodhisatta (one who is destined to be a Buddha) is the same respect. Buddhist in China, Japan and Korea belong to this school. Buddhists in Tibet and Mongolia follow another school of Buddhism known as Vajrayāna. This school inclines more towards the Mahāyāna sect.
The Mahāyāna has created many mystical Boddhisattvas while the Theravāda considers a Bodhisattva as a man amongst us who devotes his entire life for the attainment of perfection, ultimately becoming a fully Enlightened Buddha for the welfare of the world, for the happiness of the world.
Topic 36: Mention the Name of Theravāda Tipiṭaka
(270 words)
Tipiṭaka literally means “The Three Baskets”. The teaching of the Buddha expounded for forty-five years are divided into three baskets: Vinaya Piṭaka, Suttanta Piṭaka, and Abhidhamma Piṭaka.
The Vinaya Piṭaka contains disciplinary rules laid down for regulating the conduct of Bhikkhus. There are 227 rules to be observed by Bhikkhus and 311 rules by Bhikkhunis. The Vinaya Piṭaka is made up of the five books such as Pārājika (Major Offences), Pacitiya (Minor Offences), Mahāvagga (Greater Section), Cūlavagga (Shorter Section), Parivāra (Epitome of Vinaya).
The Suttanta Piṭaka is a collection of the discourses preached by the Buddha on separate occasions throughout forty-five years. A few discourses are delivered by some of eminent foremost disciples such as Venerable Sāriputta, Mahāmoggallāna, Ānanda, ect. The Suttanta Piṭaka is divided into five collections known as Nikāyas. They are:
1. Dīgha Nikāya (Collection of Long Discourses),
2. Majjhima Nikāya (Collection of Middle Length Discourses),
3. Saṁyutta Nikāya (Collection of Kindred Sayings),
4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Collection of Discourses with Serial Numbers of Facts)
5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Collection of Minor Discourses).
The Dīgha Nikāya contains 34 long discourses; the Majjhima Nikāya 152 medium length discourses; the Saṁyutta Nikāya 7762 discourses of varied length; the Aṅguttara Nikāya 9557 short discourses; and according to the classification of the sixth Buddhist Council, the Khuddaka Nikāya consists of 18 books.
The Abhidhamma Piṭaka (the Basket of Ultimate realities) is the detailed analysis of conciousness (citta), the concomitant factors (cetasika), matter (rūpa) and Nibbāna. It comprises 7 books, namely:
1. Dhammasaṅgani (Classification of Dhamma).
2. Vibhaṅga (Analysis of Dhamma).
3. Dhātukathā (Speech of Elements).
4. Puggalapaññatti (Designation of Individuals).
5. Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy) .
6. Yamaka (Analysis of Pairs), and
7. Paṭṭhāna (Causal Relations).
Topic 37: An Introduction to the Tipiṭaka
(431 words)
Tipiṭaka is the three baskets of teachings preached by the Buddha during his 45 years of ministry in Pāḷi. It consists of Vinaya (Disciplinary Code), Suttanta (Discourses), and Abhidhamma (Analysis of the mind).
Vinaya Piṭaka mainly deals with the rules and regulations of the Order of monks (Bhikkhus) and nuns (Bhikkhunis). It describes in detail the gradual development of the Sāsana (Dispensation). It also gives an account of the life and ministry of the Buddha. Indirectly it reveals some useful information about ancient history, Indian customs, arts, sciences, etc. For nearly twenty-years since His Enlightenment, the Buddha did not lay down any significant rule for the control of the Sangha. However, as the occasion arose later, the Buddha promulgated rules for the benefits of the Sangha. It is compiled in the five following books:
1. Pārājika (Major Offences)
2. Pacittiya (Minor Offences)
3. Mahāvagga (Greater Section)
4. Cūlavagga (Smaller Section)
5. Parivāra (Epitome of the Vinaya)
Sutta Piṭaka consists chiefly of discourses delivered by the Buddha Himself on various occasions. There are also a few discourses delivered by some of His distinguished disciples, such as the Venerable Sāriputta, Ānanda, Moggallāna, ect… included in it. It is like a book of prescriptions, as the sermons embodied therein were expounded to suit the different occasions and the temperaments of various persons. There may be seemingly contradictory statements, but they should not be misconstrued as they were opportunely uttered by the Buddha to suit a particular purpose. It is divided into five Nikāyas or collections as follows
1. Dīgha Nikāya (Collection of Long Discourses)
- Majjhima Nikāya (Collection of Middle-length Discourses)
- Saṁyutta Nikāya (Collection of Kindred Sayings)
- Aṅguttara Nikāya (Collection of Discourses arranged in accordance with Number)
- Khuddaka Nikāya (Smaller Collection).
Abhiddhamma Pitaka is, to a deep thinker, the most important and interesting, as it contains the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s teaching in contrast to the illuminating but simpler discourses in the Sutta Pitaka.
Four ultimate things (paramattha) are enumerated in the Abhidhamma. They are Consciousness (Citta), Mental Concomitants (Cetasika), Matter (Rūpa) and Nibbāna. The so-called being is microscopically analysed and its component parts are minutely described. Finally the ultimate goal and the method to achieve it is explained in more details. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is consisted in the following works:
1. Dhammasaṅgani (Classification of Phenomena)
- Vibhaṅga (The Book of the Analysis)
- Puggalapaññatti (Designation of Individuals)
- Dhātukatha (Discussion with reference to Elements)
- Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy)
- Yamaka (The Book of Pairs)
- Paṭṭhāna (The Book of Relations)
Topic 38: Six Buddhist Councils
(497 words)
The Gotama Buddha founded Buddhism in India over 2500 years ago. Since its founding, Buddhism has undergone a series of attacks form other sects of religions. Even in the lifetime of the Buddha, some sectarian teachers challenged the Buddha, who had, therefore, to defeat them unavoidably. Seven days after the demise of the Buddha, an old Bhikkhu by the name Subbhada, spoke ill of the Buddha’s teachings. At these insulting words, the Ven. Mahākassapa decided to hold the First Buddhist Council with a view to perpetuating the Buddha’s sāsana. Throughout its long history, Buddhism waxed and waned due to various reasons. Therefore, devoted kings and peoples together with learnt Bhikkhus have been making collective efforts to protect and perpetuate Buddhism. Out of the endeavours for perpetuation of Buddhism, Buddhist synods are the most remarkable.
The first Buddhist synod was held at the Mount Vebhāra near Rājagaha after the demise of the Buddha. It was headed by the Ven. Mahākassapa and supported by King Ajātasattu. It lasted for 7 months.
The second Buddhist was held in Vesāli in 443 B.C. due to unlawful modifications in the rules of the Order by Vajian Bhikkhus. It was headed by Ven. Yasa and supported by King Kalasoka. It lasted for 8 months.
The third Buddhist synod was held in Pātalipūtra in 308 B.C. due to the corrupt lives of heretical views followed by 60.000 ascetics. It was headed by Ven. Moggaliputta and supported by Great Emperor Asoka. It lasted for 9 months. After this synod, the King sent 9 missions to 9 different places to propagate the sāsana.
The fourth Buddhist synod was held at Malaya district in Sri Lanka in 94 B.C due to declination of the power of mindfulness, concentration and wisdom of the Bhikkhus, was headed by Ven. Mahā Dhammarakhita and supported by King Vaṭṭagāmani. It lasted for one year. After this synod, the entire words of the Buddha;s teachings were inscribed on palm leaves.
The fifth Buddhist synod was held in Mandalay in Myanmar in November 1871. It was headed by Ven. Jāgarābhivaṃsa and supported by King Mindon. At the end of this synod, the whole Tipiṭaka was inscribed on 729 marble slaps in the precincts of Lokamārajina Pagoda at the foot of the Mandalay Hill. It took seven years, six months and fourteen days to finish this work. Then, Pāli texts were translated into Myanmar language.
The sixth Buddhist synod was held at Mahāpāsana Cave in Kaba-Aye, Yangon, Myanmar, in May 1954. It was headed by Ven. Revata and supported by the Government of the Union of Myanmar. It was attended by delegates from five Theravāda Buddhist countries. At this synod, the Pāli texts, commentaries and sub-commentaries were examined.
The Buddhist summit as an effort to promote Buddhism was held at Māhāpāsana cave in Kaba-Aye, Yangon, Myanmar from 9th to 11th 2004. It was headed by Ven. Sītagu Sayādaw Ñāṇissara and supported by the State Peace and Development Council. It was attended by delegates from 38 countries.
Topic 39: The Sixth Buddhist Council
(212 words)
On the full moon day of Kason, 1316 ME, 2498 BE, May 1954 AD, the sixth Buddhist Council was held at the Mahāpāsanā great cave, Kabā-Aye, Yangon, Myanmar.
The Sixth Great Council was held aiming at the purification and promotion of the Buddha sāsanā. Two thousand and five hundred Bhikkhus from five countries of Theravāda Buddhism participated in this Council. Naoung Yan Sayadaw and Venerable Revata presided over it. Most Ven. Mahāsi Sayādaw, Venerable Sobana Vicittāsānābhivaṃsa took leading role in that council.
The doctrinal questions asked by Monks of five Theravāda Buddhist Countries (Myanmar, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Laos, and Cambodia) were solved. Twenty five other countries also gave much help to that Council.
In that Council, not only Canonical Pāli texts but also commentaries and sub-commentaries were re-examined. This Council was supported by Myanmar Government, President Sao Shwe Thaik and Prime Minister U Nu.
In this way, Venerable Mahākassapa and the custodians of the Buddha held the Great Councils up to the sixth time and confirmed the Buddha’s teachings without any change and modification.
The Buddha utterly passed away twenty five centuries ago, but all the teachings that he had expounded to mankind during his lifetime still exist in complete purity and spread all over the world today.
Topic 40: The Golden Land
Explain Briefly in 250 Words Why Do You Want to Visit Myanmar?
Explain in Brief Why Do You Want to Study Theravāda Buddhism in the Union of Myanmar?
(281 words)
Myanmar is known as “The Golden Land” to the world for its numerous glittering pagodas. In addition to the pagodas, stupas, temples, grottos, monasteries and other religious edifices are scattering all over the country. Although Myanmar is not the cradle of Buddhism, it reaches its height here in Myanmar. Buddhism took its root on the soil of Myanmar in Bagan Period. Thenceforth, it has been flourishing with the encouragement of the Kings, the governments and the people of successive periods.
Along with the flourishing of Buddhism, Buddhist literature thrives. Myanmar has so far produced twelve Tipiṭakadhara Sayādaws (bearers of the three Baskets of the Dhamma) and many learned Sayādaws. There are two state pariyatti sasanā Universities, one International Theravāda Buddhist Missionary University and many pariyatti learning centers where learned Sayadaws are imparting their knowledge on Buddhism to their disciples. Therefore, Myanmar is a good place for those who want to study Buddhism in theory and in practice. The teachings of the Buddha are being imposed on the minds of the Myanmar people. There are very much devoted to the Triple Gem. So they show respect to the elders, have proper regard for those who are of the same age as themselves and are kind and sympathetic to the young. They are cultured, hospitable and generous. “Make yourself at home” is the common phrase of Myanmar people to welcome their visitors.
Besides, there are many ancient cities and archaeological and cultural sites dotting the country. It is also beautiful with ever-green forests, sky-kissing mountains, greenery and glossy meadows, snow-capped, mountain-peaks, rocky-gorges, crystal-clear rivers, running brooks, graceful water- falls, silvery white beaches and wooded islets. Indeed, Myanmar is a worth visit.
Topic 41: The Shwedagon Pagoda as a Religious Monument
(368 words)
The Shwedagon is one of the greatest cultural monuments in Myanmar. It is also the wonder of the world, comparable in size to the “Angko Wat” of Combodia. “Shwe” means “gold”, and “Dagon” is a former name of Yangon. Therefore, “Shwedagon” means the gold pagoda. It is believed that it has built nearly 2600 years ago, in the Buddha’s life time.
According to the legend of pagoda, there were two brothers Tapussa and Bhallika from Myanmar, travelling to India for trading. After a few days they went to the forest to relax. At that time, a tree deity who was their relative in the previous life informed that the Buddha has appeared in this world. They went to pay homage and offered honey cakes to the Buddha. They became the first Buddhists in the Buddha-sāsana. After preaching the Dhamma, the Buddha gave them eight strands of hair to worship. When they came back to their native, they gave those hair to king Ukkalāpa to enshrine them in a “Zedi”. On the full moon day of Tabaung in 103 of Myanmar Era, the King started to build the Shwedagon pagoda. According to the legend, on that very day, rain of jewels fell to the ground knee-deep. While laying down the foundation for the pagoda, the relics of the preceding Buddhas were found and they were enshrined in the pagoda. So Shwedagon later became known as the pagoda of the four Buddha’s relics (Kakusandha Buddha, Konāgamana Buddha, Kassapa Buddha, and Gotama Buddha).
Shwedagon has a height of 326 feet and it has been covered with plates of gold from the foot to the top of the pagoda. On the top it has an umbrella covered with gold and encrusted with many gems donated by the Myanmar people.
In 1999, the State Peace Development Council renovated it at a lavish coast. It has four covered stair-ways in the four directions. Today, it is visited daily by Buddhist devotees and foreigners. It stands as a testimony to the high standard of Myanmar architecture and symbol of flourishing of Theravāda Buddhism in Myanmar. So I should say that it is the pride and glory of Myanmar.
Topic 42: A Brief History of the Shewdagon Pagoda
(408 words)
The Shewdagon is one of the greatest culture monuments in Myanar. Its name is derived from the name of a Mon State, known as Yangon. It is also called Singuttara Ceti, Tigumba Ceti or Tigon Ceti. It is situated on the Singuttara Hill in Yangon, the former capital of Myanmar nowadays, towering almost 100 metres above the green city-scope of Yangon. It is a prominent landmark visible from miles around. It is believed to have been built nearly 2600 years ago, in the Buddha’s lifetime.
According to the legend, two brothers Tapussa and Ballika from Myanmar led a caravan of bullock carts to India for their trade and came across Bodhgaya where the Buddha who had recently attained his Buddhahood was sitting. They paid homage and offered milk cakes to him. They took refuge in the Buddha and Dhamma and became the first lay Buddhists in Buddhism. Before they turned back, the Buddha gave them eight strands of the latter’s hair.
They were so joyful and came back their native Okkalāpa and presented the strands of hair to the King of Okkalāpa to enshrine in the Zedi. When laying down the foundation of the Pagoda, the sacred relics of the three former Buddhas were found and also were enshrined in the same on the full moon day of the Tabaung, 103 Mahā Sakkāraja Era (589 B.C.) So the Shewdagon Pagoda later became known as the Pagoda of the four Buddhas’ Relics.
The Pagoda was only 66 feet in height when it was first built. It attained its present height and shaped only in the 14th and 15th century when it was overbuilt and enlarged by a succession of Mon Kings and a Queen who were rulers of lower Myanmar. Today it has a height of 326 feet and its circumference is of 1.420 feet at the base. It has been covered with plates of gold from the foot to the top of the Pagoda. On the top it has an umbrella covered with gold and encrusted with many gems donated by Myanmar people.
In 1999 it was renovated at a lavish cost. It has four covered stairway on the four directions. Today it is visited daily by Buddhist devotees and foreigners who are extremely surprised at the first sight of it. It stands as a testimony and symbol of flourishing of Buddhism in Myanmar. It is one of the top ten world wonders and worthy to a visit.
Topic 43: A Religious Festival in Myanmar
(270 words)
Myanmar is known as the land of festivals. There are many festivals in all the year round. Some are social festivals while some are religious festivals. Some are cultural festivals while some are political festivals. I like all of them. Among them, I have a special liking for the Thadingyut or lighting festival.
It usually falls in October. It lasts for three days. It is held in honour of the Lord Buddha’s return to the human abode from Tāvatiṃsa. It is said that the Lord Buddha ascended to Tāvatiṃsa after performing the Twin-miracle in Sāvathi, delivering Abhidhamma to the Devas and Brāhmas headed by Santusita deva for three months. Then he got down to the human abode on the night of full moon day of Thadingyut. When he went down, people welcomed Him with lights. Since then the Thadingyut festival come into being.
On the night of the Thadingyut festival, people are dressed in the best. There are stage-shows and people dancing in streets; wards, houses, public buildings and pagodas are bedecked with colourful lights. All roads and streets are crowded with pwe-goers. There is bustle everywhere. It is the time of good deeds. So many people go to the monasteries and pagodas keep sabbath. Some observe the five precepts and some listen to sermons. During the festival days, some villagers send up paper-balloons into the sky to pay homage to the Culamuni Pagoda which is believed to be the Tāvatiṃsa. Besides, some children are happy letting off fire crackers and fire sprinklers. Anyhow, the Thadingyut festival is the time of happiness and good deeds. So I like it very much.
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